Human Resource Training and Development Essay

Training and development is a major investment made by employers , and therefore great care should be taken to ensure adequate returns on the investment. Training and development. Some experts try to differentiate training from development. In this case, both training and development is in the same meaning. Training is more to short term, and focuses on current needs of the employee and the organization. Development meanwhile looks more to the future needs, whereby development are about preparing employees for tomorrow’s jobs, technology and economic situation. Most on-the-job training efforts are about ensuring that employees can perform their present tasks as well as possible. Leadership programmes, on the other hand, are an example of the development initiatives taken by employers to ensure they have a steady supply of senior managers ready to drive organizational success. TRAINING EMPLOYEES. Training is a learning process that involves the acquisition of knowledge, skills, and abilities or known as K. S. A. K. S. A. is necessary to successfully perform a job. Several reasons exist for an organization to conduct training for it’s employees. Here are the 4 reasons why K. S. A. is important. 1. Economic, social, technological, and government changes can make the skills learned today obsolete in the future. 2. Planned organizational changes (such as the introduction of new equipment) can make it necessary for employees to update their skills or acquire new ones. 3. Performance problems within an organization such as low productivity or large scrap problems can be reduced by training. 4. Regulatory, contractual, professional, or certification issues can require an employer to provide training for it employees. STEPS TO A SUCCESSFUL TRAINING PROGRAM. * Perform job analysis. * Perform needs assessment * Establish training objectives * Conduct training program* Evaluate training outcomes Job analysis. Job analysis is actually more focusing on the Knowledge, skills, and abilities (K. S. A. ). K. S. A. is actually necessary to successfully perform a job. Perform needs assessment. Needs assessment is a systematic analysis of the specific training activities the organization requires to achieve it objectives. In general, five methods can be used to gather needs assessment information – 1. Interviews 2. Surveys / questionnaires 3. Observations 4. Focus groups 5. Document examination. Interviews with employees can be conducted by specialists in the Human Resource Deaprtment or by outside experts. Basic questions that should usually be asked are as follows : 1. What problems is the employees having in his/her job. 2. What additional skills and/or knowledge does the employee need to better perform the job? 3. What training does the employee believe is needed? In conducting an interviews, every organization would have several additional questions about specific issues. In addition, if interviews are to provide useful information, employees must believe their input will be valued and not be used against them. Surveys and/or questionnaires are also frequently used in needs assessment. Normally this involves developing a list of skills required to perform particular jobs effectively and asking employees to check those skills in which they believe they need training. METHODS OF TRAINING Several methods can be used to satisfy an organization’s training needs and accomplish it’s objectives. Some of the more commonly used methods include on-the-job training, job rotation, apprenticeship training, and classroom training. * On-The-Job training. On-the-Job training or simply known as OTJ, is normally given by a senior employee or a manager. The employee is shown how to perform the job and allowed to do it under the trainer’s supervision. * Job rotation (cross training) One of the OTJ training is job rotation, sometimes called cross training. In job rotation, an individual learns several different jobs within a work unit or department and performs each job for a specified time period. One main advantage of job rotation is that it makes flexibility possible in the department. For example, when one member of a work unit is absent, another person can perform the job. The advantages of OTJ training are that no special facilities are required and the new employee does productive work during the learning process. OTJ training has been found to be more effective than classroom training that may be seldom be used when the person returns to the job. It’s major disadvantages is that the pressures of the workplace can cause instruction of the employee to be haphazard or neglected. * Apprenticeship Training Apprenticeship Training provides beginning workers with comprehensive training in the practical and theoretical aspects of work required in a highly skilled occupation. Apprenticeship programs combine OTJ and classroom training to prepare workers for more than 800 skilled occupations such as computer operator and laboratory technician. * Classroom Training Classroom Training is conducted off the job and is probably the most familiar training method. It is an effective means of imparting information quickly to large groups with limited or no knowledge of the subject being presented. It is useful for teaching factual material, concepts, principles, and theories. Portions of orientation programs, some aspects of apprenticeship training, and safety programs are usually presented utilizing some form of classroom instruction. * Virtual classroom Internet technology has advanced rapidly and as a result the training of Prev Page employees is changing. In some companies, employee training has moved from the old typical style classroom to the internet. A virtual classroom is an online teaching and learning environment that integrates chat rooms, desktop video conferencing, web sites, and e-mail distributions into a typical lecture-based systems. Virtual classroom offer training in either self-paced courses, real-time courses through intranets, or real-time video conferencing. In a typical virtual classroom, a professor lectures to a local class and a remote class that may be thousand of miles away. EVALUATING TRAINING When the results of a training program are evaluated, a number of benefits accrue. Less effective programs can be withdrawn to save time and effort. Weaknesses within established programs can be identified and remedied. Evaluation of training can be broken down into four areas : 1. Reaction – How much did the trainees like the program? 2. Learning – What principles, facts, and concepts were learned in the training program? 3. Behavior – Did the job behavior of the trainees change because of the program? 4. Results – What were the results of the program in terms of factorssuch as reduced costs or reduction in turnover? * Reaction Reaction evaluation should be consider a wide range of topics, including program content, structure and format, instructional techniques, instructors abilities and style, the quality of the learning environment, the extent to which training objectives were achieved, and recommendations for improvement. Reaction evaluation questionnaires are normally administrated immediately following the training, but they can be administered several weeks later. The major flaw in using only reaction evaluation is that enthuasiasm of trainees cannot necessarily be taken as evidence of improved ability and performance * Learning Learning evaluation concerns how well the trainees understood and absorbed the principles, facts, and skills taught. In teaching skills, classroom Prev Page demonstrations by trainees are a fairly objective way to determine how much learning is occurring. Where principles and facts are being taught, paper and pencils tests can be used. Standardized tests can be purchased to measure learning in many areas. In other areas, the trainers must develop their own tests. To obtain an accurate picture of what was learned, trainees should be tested both before and after the program. * Behavior Behavior evaluation deals with the nature of the change in job behavior of the trainee and is much more difficult than reaction of learning evaluation. The following guidelines can help evaluate behavioral change. A systematic appraisal should be made of on the job (OTJ) performance on a before and after basis. The appraisal of performance should be made by one or more of the following groups (the more the better) * The trainee * The trainee’s superior * The trainee’s subordinates * The trainee’s peers or other people thoroughly familiar with his/her performance. A statistical analysis should be made to compare performance before and after training and to relate changes to the training program. The post-training appraisal should be made several months after the training so that the trainees have an opportunity to put what they have learned into practice. A control group (one not receiving the training) should be used. * Results. Results evaluation attempts to measure changes in variables such as reduced turnover, reduced costs, improved efficiency, reduction in grievances, and increases in quantity and quality of production. As with behavior evaluation, pretests, posttests, and control groups are reqired in performing an accurate results evaluation. Prev Page BENEFITS OF TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT As we know, training is designed to change attitudes, develop skills, and impart knowledge. Effective training programmes may require expenditure on the part of the employer, but they bring about a number of benefits to the organization, including – * Increased productivity which in turn leads to higher profits. * More satisfied employees which lowers turnover rates. * Aid recruitment efforts making it easier to hire talented employees. * Trained employees are more innovative. * The company is in a better position to compete both nationally and internationally. Trained employees help ensure that company profits are maximized. At the same time, the training of employees is significant at the macro level of the economy. Well-trained staff can produce higher quality products which can successfully gain a good share of the world markets. By training and development organizing work around subordinates becomes fairly easy. The span of control of the managers increase which help the organizations in low costs and thus better allocation of resources takes place. It also helps the managers effectively and efficiently attain the organizational goals. Also by training the employees helps the employees get updated with the latest skills and techniques, which in turn increase the productivity and output per worker and the marginal and average productivity per worker increases. THE MALAYSIA CASE ON TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT. Malaysia is an example country that really put an efforts in order to maintain and establish a good way of training and development. As we know, Prev Page Malaysia are now competing with highly sophisticated staff from many multinational company from many nations. Through this, the Malaysian government takes a keen interest in helping and encouraging employers to train their staff continuously. The government of Malaysia has established a number of initiatives which directly or indirectly help employers to train their employees. This include – * A free educational system up to secondary level. * Subsidized tertiary education in public universities. * Encouraging top-class foreign universities to establish branches or campuses or conduct training programme’s . * Establishment of Industrial Training Institutes to train industrial training instructors. * Introduction of the Pembangunan Sumber Manusia Bhd. Act. (Human Resource Development Bhd. Act. ) International HRD Types of Expatriates Expatriates Free Agent Heart at Home Going Native Dual Citizen Proactive Career Stagnant Career Ethnocentric Adaptable Most Effective There are generally four types of expatriates managers : Free agent. There are two types of free agent. The first includes people who put their career above either the parent company or the foreign operation where they Prev Page are working. They often are highly effective, but they will move with little warning from one company to another, may serve their own short term interests at the expense of the company’s long term ones, and do not plan to return to their home country. The second types of people are who takes foreign assignment only for the large compensation. Heart at home The heart at home type is very ethnocentric and usually eager to return home. When the company wants strong headquarters control, this type of person may be useful and effective. Going native The going native type learns and accepts the local way of doing business, want to stay in the foreign location, and prefer not to consult headquarters. This type of person may be appropriate for situations in which the company follows multi domestic practices. Dual Citizen The dual citizen type has a clear understanding of global needs, why he or she is needed at the foreign subsidiary and local. This type of person usually finds methods to align the interest of headquarters and the subsidiary. Generally, the dual citizen is most effective type of expatriate managers. Training and Development for Expatriate Managers Training focus on preparing the manager for a specific job, while development is concern with the developing skills of the manager when he work with the firm. Normally, most firms focus more on the training rather than on development of the management. Management development programmes for expatriate managers increase overall skills levels by continuing learning in management and rotations of managers through jobs within the global firms to gain more experiences. Management development is best to used as strategic tool to build strong understanding about other culture and informal management network, both of which are supportive of a transnational and global strategy. Before expatriates are sent for their foreign assignment, they need to be Prev Page prepared for their foreign assignment, they need to be prepared for their new and more challenging tasks. So, it is important for expatriates well trained before they leave the country. Training for expatriates managers involve obtaining skills for a particular foreign posting. Training can helps expatriates and their families to ready with the above problems related to the foreign assignments. Cultural training, language training, and practical training will help those expatriate to solve the problem and reduce expatriates failures. Cultural training Cultural training provides opportunities for expatriates to understand and value the culture of the host country. The training must be cover the country culture such as in aspect of history, politics, economy, religion, and social and business practices prior to departure. Cultural training can promote an appreciation of the host country’s culture and help in expatriate adjustment. Language training Although the English is the international language, expatriates are needed to learn and understand some language of the host country. It is because to helps effective communication between locals and expatriates. Language training helps to improve expatriates’s effectiveness, aid expatriates in adjusting to foreign culture, and create a better corporate image. Practical training Practical training is the best mode to prepared the expatriates to adapt new environment and daily activities. Sharing experiences with those who have been to the host’s country is one way to have real life experiences prior to departure. Once in the host country, seeking support from other expatriates from the same country would speed up the process of adaptation in the new environment. Practical training can help expatriates and family ease into day to day life of the host country. Repatriation training Another issue in training and development is repatriation which refer to preparing expatriates for re-entry into their home country organization. This is the same to support expatriate to adjust the expatriate in a new environment. Prev Page Cross Cultural Training Cross cultural training is a kind of cultural training given to the potential expatriates before they go on their overseas assignments. Cross cultural training refers to the development of awareness between people where a common cultural framework does not exist. There are two approaches of cross cultural training which are cross cultural awareness training and culture or country specific training. Cross Cultural Awareness Training. Cross cultural awareness training deals with the manifestation of culture in the workplace and has many applications. Its main purpose is to evaluate and undertake the challenges cross cultural differences can bring to the workplace. This training generates awareness of a foreign culture and creates understanding of how to foster mutual trust, respect, and understanding in a different culture. This training an effort to equip potential expatriates with the knowledge and skills to effectively manage a multi-cultural staff. This training helps them to create fair and comfortable working environment and enhance negotiations with foreign clients or customers in discussing possible terms and conditions. Culture or Country specific training Culture or country specific training is commonly targeted at individual or teams that often visit a foreign country or who frequently interact with foreign client. Such training usually focuses on areas such as values, morals, ethics, business practices, etiquette, protocol, or negotiation styles with reference to one country. This better equips participants with the key skills. Understanding and appreciating intercultural differences ultimately promotes clearer communication, reduces communication, reduces barriers, builds trust, strengthen relationships, open horizons, and yield tangible results in terms of business success. Repatriation of Expatriates Repatriation is a critical issues in the training and development of expatriates managers. Repatriation is concerned when the expatriates who have been living abroad for certain period of time for re-entry into their Prev Page home country. Repatriation should be seen as the final link in an integrated, circular process that selects, train, sends, and brings home expatriate managers. Repatriation is the return of the expatriate to his or home country following completion of a lengthy foreign assignment. Repatriation is needed as expatriates who have spent a few years in host country cultures often experiences distress in readapting to their own home culture. The distress is normally caused by adaptation to the host country, followed by re-entry, which means that they have adapt to something that they left before. This creates disturbance in the early period of coming back, and is referred to as reverse culture shock. The disturbance is worse when returning managers are not able to get the right position or nothing more than to get the position in the home office. Like expatriation, repatriation requires advance preparation. If repatriation is not properly managed, the expatriate will encounter problem when returning to the home country. Some of returning employees fell that their international experiences is not valued because they be placed in lower position rather than high position on overseas. Moreover, some expatriates report that they have difficulties in financial upon returned. Many experiences reverse culture shock when in readjustment to home country culture. For employees and employee who have worked several years abroad have difficulties to readjustment the daily life like before. Problem with repatriation arises in three general areas such as personal finances, readjustment to the home country work environment, and readjustment to the home country social life. Companies give expatriate many financial benefits to encourage them to accept a foreign assignment. While abroad, expatriates may live in the high standard neighbourhood and sent their children to the private schools, socialize with elite group, and still save more money because of high wages. Some of human resources practices for smoothing repatriation including providing expatriates with an advance notices of when they will return, more information about their new jobs, placement in suitable job regarding with their foreign experiences, housing assistance, reorientation programmes, periodic visits to headquarters, and enlisting a formal headquarters mentor to watch over their interests while.

Succubus Revealed Chapter 17

In spite of my sorrow over Seth, I was still ready for a storm. It hadn't really registered at the time, but when I woke up on New Year's Day with a wine-induced headache, I accepted the startling truth: I was challenging Hell. Who did that? No one, that's who. My friends had hinted as much, and I certainly had plenty of myths and pop culture to enlighten me about the futile human dream of thwarting Hell's will. I had my own experience to go on too. I'd signed away my soul for all eternity. There wasn't much wiggle room with that. And yet, in spite of all the things I'd seen and all the people Hell had crushed, here I was, daring to say Hell had no claim on either my soul or Seth's. I expected to hear about it immediately. I expected a huge uproar, perhaps in the form of Jerome showing up in my condo in all his brimstone glory, threatening me for my impertinence. At the very least, I expected a letter of acknowledgment from Hell, something along the lines of, Thank you very much for your inquiry. We will respond to you within 4?C6 weeks. Nothing. New Year's Day passed quietly. So did the next. I continued my pattern of packing and making Las Vegas preparations, all the while holding my breath for The Next Big Thing. I thought something would surely happen a week later, when the long-awaited bowling tournament came around. Jerome and Nanette had flipped for it, and he'd won, meaning we got to hold the match here in Seattle. It saved us from making a trip to Portland, but for the sake of fairness, Nanette got to pick the bowling alley. Rather than our dive at Burt's, she chose a more upscale place, not far from the mall I'd worked at. I hadn't seen Jerome since I'd filed the petition and was ready now to face his wrath. I didn't know if Nanette's lesser immortals would know about the request, but I felt certain she would by now. She and Jerome might be rivals of sorts, but at the end of the day, they were both committed to Hell winning. I was trying to thwart that and wouldn't have been surprised to find her sharing in Jerome's outrage. â€Å"Good luck,† Roman told me, as I prepared to leave the condo. â€Å"Remember to watch your footing.† I sighed. â€Å"I wish you were coming with me.† He offered me a small smile. â€Å"Me too. All that work, and I won't even get to see my students' final exam.† Roman could hide his nephilim signature from greater immortals, but considering the way his kind were hunted, we'd decided it would be best if he steered clear of Nanette while she was in town. Jerome's agreement to let Roman stay was both highly unusual and dangerous. If another archdemon discovered the truth, both Roman and Jerome would be in a lot of trouble. â€Å"I'm afraid of what I'll face from Jerome,† I said. â€Å"Don't be.† Roman came forward and rested his hand on my shoulder. â€Å"You're not doing anything wrong. They did. You're strong, Georgina. Stronger than them, stronger than Hell.† I leaned my head against him. â€Å"Why are you so nice to me?† â€Å"Because Carter's not your only fan.† When I looked back up, I saw Roman's green eyes were deadly serious. â€Å"You're a remarkable woman, just by your own nature. Smart. Funny. Compassionate. But what's really great is that you're so easy to underestimate. I did when we first met, you know. And Hell is now. No matter what their reaction to your appeal is, I guarantee most of them doubt you have a chance. You're going to prove them wrong. You're going to break the unbreakable. And I'll be there helping you, as much as I can.† â€Å"You've done enough,† I told him. â€Å"More than enough. More than I could have ever asked. Now you get to sit back and let me do . . . well, whatever I have to do now.† â€Å"Georgina, there's something you need to know. . . .† His face grew troubled. â€Å"What?† I asked. â€Å"Oh God. You haven't heard something from Jerome that I haven't, have you?† â€Å"I – † He bit his lip as he paused, then shook his head. His features smoothed out. â€Å"Forget it. I'm just going to worry you over nothing. You focus on bowling tonight, okay? Show those Portlandians that . . . fuck, I don't know. That you're a force to be reckoned with in the bowling alley.† I laughed and gave him a quick hug. â€Å"I'll see what I can do. How about we talk when I get back, okay? We'll grab a drink.† I knew there was something big here he wasn't telling me, no matter how easily he'd tried to brush it off. â€Å"I'd like that. Good luck.† When I arrived at the bowling alley, Peter nearly sank in relief when he saw me. I think he'd been afraid I'd show up without my Unholy Rollers shirt. Through whatever means Hell possessed, all the other patrons in the alley were playing on one side. The other half was empty, save for two lanes occupied by my colleagues. I was the last to arrive and approached with trepidation, unsure of my welcome. Jerome was sprawled comfortably in a chair, and while it was in better shape than the ones at Burt's, I'm not really sure it deserved the thronelike airs he was putting on. Nanette sat across from him, looking equally regal. Her pale blond hair was rolled into an elegant coif, giving her kind of a Grace Kelly look. Her dress was a pale blue shift with a fuzzy gray cardigan over it, the innocence of the look clashing with the unnecessary vampish sunglasses she was wearing. â€Å"Ah, Georgie,† said Jerome. â€Å"Right on time and in team colors.† He favored Nanette with a lazy smile. â€Å"Ready for some humility?† â€Å"Yours?† she asked him. â€Å"Always.† Neither gave me much more attention than was due for the last person to fill a team spot. No mention of the contract, no mention of my petition. Glancing around and taking in the full roster here, I saw that Mei had also come to watch the spectacle. The demoness was dressed in corporate black, matching her bluntly cut black hair and heavy eyeliner. Only her red lips provided color to the palette. She most certainly knew about my situation, but like her superiors, she barely glanced my way. Carter was there, which I had not expected. Nanette and her cronies were clearly uneasy about this. Although all greater immortals, be they angels or demons, shared a certain world weariness with immortality and the Great Game, few were able to bond over it so well as Carter and Jerome. Their relationship was unique, and Nanette clearly felt no camaraderie with the angel. Whereas I received little of her attention simply because I was an underling, Carter she ignored as though he didn't even exist. He gave me a small smile as I sat down, his gray eyes full of amusement. He was sitting with my friends, perfectly at ease, while Nanette's bowling team regarded him warily. I hoped maybe his presence would throw off their game. There were four of them, just like us, though they'd actually drafted Nanette's lieutenant demon, Malachi, to play for them. Rounding them out were a succubus named Tiara, an imp named Roger, and a vampire named V. â€Å"What's the V stand for?† I asked. He just stared at me, face blank. They were an impressive-looking bunch, with deep red bowling shirts and sparkling black embroidery that read DEVIL MAY CARE on the back. â€Å"That's not even a real team name,† Peter whispered to me disapprovingly. â€Å"And those sparkles are just tacky.† Like ours, their shirts were standard button-ups with their names on the front. Only Malachi's was different, with a small designation declaring him Captain. I guess he needed to make sure his status was asserted over that of the lesser immortals. There was something lean and sinister about them, and in our baby blues, I felt downright cute and cuddly. A waitress came by with drinks, and once Jerome had a glass of scotch in hand, he deemed proceedings fit to start. There was a part of me that wouldn't have minded a gimlet or two, but I didn't think alcohol was the best call just now. It had nothing to do with team solidarity or messing up my game. When surrounded by unknown and possibly untrustworthy immortals, it was always a good idea to keep your wits about you. And when you were possibly on Hell's radar for dissension, it was an excellent idea. In my usual lucky way, I ended up having to go first. With all my worries about Seth and the contracts, my mind wasn't exactly focused on all of Roman's good instructions, but I nonetheless did my best to recall his training. I ended up hitting seven and then two pins. Not the greatest, but certainly not the worst. My teammates cheered me voraciously, both because Peter had sent us all a lengthy e-mail earlier in the day about â€Å"pep† and because with our track record, nine wasn't that bad. Tiara went after me, and as she retrieved her ball, Cody whispered to me how she'd gotten in a fight with management earlier because she'd wanted to wear stilettos on the lanes. She'd apparently conceded to wear proper bowling shoes in the end, but unless there'd been a significant trend change in the industry, she'd ended up using her shape-shifting powers to make the shoes more to her liking. They were gold and encrusted with jewels. Yet those weren't the worst part of her attire. That came in the form of her Devil May Care shirt, which I was pretty sure had shrunk about three sizes since I arrived. The buttons that were still actually fastened looked like they were about to burst. I winced as all that cleavage walked past me, and I wanted to cover my eyes when she reached the lane and bent over unnecessarily far, in order to give everyone a solid view of her ass. Her jeans were nearly as tight as the shirt. â€Å"That is not a regulation stance,† declared Peter. He studied her critically for a few moments. â€Å"I believe she's trying to distract us.† I scoffed. â€Å"Oh, you think?† â€Å"Hey!† Peter elbowed Cody and Hugh who – judging by their gaping mouths – were not catching on to Tiara's ruse as easily as the rest of us. â€Å"Focus. Remember what you're playing for: Jerome's good will.† â€Å"Nothing wrong with looking,† said Hugh. â€Å"Besides, there's no way she can hit anything with that – â€Å" His words cut off as Tiara threw. Her ball blasted into the pins and knocked all ten over. With a little smirk and a lot of hip swaying, she strutted back proudly to her seat. â€Å"Shit,† said Hugh. â€Å"Ready to focus yet?† asked Peter. The imp shook his head, still in awe. â€Å"I don't think it's going to matter, not if they all bowl like that.† â€Å"They can't all bowl like that,† countered Cody. But he didn't sound so sure. Noticing our consternation, Tiara favored us all with a glossy-lipped smile. â€Å"We can call it quits right now if you want. We can go back to my hotel and have a party.† She tossed her highlighted curls over one shoulder, and her gaze rested on me. â€Å"I can also give you some styling advice if you want.† â€Å"Oh my God,† I muttered. â€Å"This is why I hate other succubi.† I could almost give Hell credit for finding me the only appealing one in Vegas, even if it had been part of a more elaborate scheme. Tiara soon became the least of our worries as her teammates took their turns. Strikes and spares all around, quickly surpassing our mix of erratic spares and . . . whatever it was Peter threw. As we moved further into the game, I glanced over at Jerome and saw that his smile had vanished, as had his cocky good mood. At least I could feel confident it had nothing to do with my contract. V proved to be the most startling of the bowlers. Whenever his turn came, he walked up unhesitatingly, didn't even pause or aim, and threw strikes every time. Every time. He also never spoke a single world. â€Å"How is he doing that?† exclaimed Cody. He glanced at Carter, who was watching everything with quiet amusement. â€Å"Is he using some kind of power?† â€Å"No illicit ones,† said Carter. â€Å"Just his own God-given . . . er, Hell-given abilities.† I hadn't really been worried about the other team cheating or Nanette helping them. I knew Jerome would keep her in check, and Carter's angelic presence was kind of a safeguard against dishonest activity. But his words struck something within me. â€Å"Of course,† I murmured. â€Å"He's just using what he's got: enhanced reflexes and senses. He's a vampire. He's physically better at everything.† No wonder it didn't seem like he needed to aim. He probably was; he was just doing it really, really fast. I turned to Cody and Peter. â€Å"How come you guys can't do that?† Silence met me. â€Å"Cody's our best player,† pointed out Hugh. â€Å"True,† I admitted. Cody had learned very quickly, and I supposed the difference in his and V's abilities made sense simply because V had been playing a lot longer. â€Å"But how do you explain Peter?† Nobody had an answer for that, least of all Peter. Cody actually seemed to draw inspiration from V and the realization that being a vampire should provide some natural ability. Cody's already solid performance soon improved, and I wished Roman could see him. Still, it wasn't enough to save us in that first game. We lost pretty terribly. Since Jerome and Nanette had agreed to â€Å"best of three,† this meant we had two more chances for redemption. I had mixed feelings about this. Jerome's face was growing stormier, so there was some comfort in thinking we might be able to head off his wrath. On the other hand, I wouldn't have minded ending this as quickly as possible. Maybe the Devil didn't care, but I was growing increasingly sick of the other team. I was pretty sure Tiara's outfit was getting increasingly tighter and more revealing. Although he never spoke, V's smug expressions conveyed condescension levels that words never could. And yet, neither of them was as bad as Roger the imp. Every time he got a strike or a spare, he trumpeted his victory with some sort of money-related expression, such as â€Å"Jackpot !† or â€Å"A penny saved is a penny earned!† Sometimes they didn't even make any sense in the situation, like when he shouted, â€Å"It's like throwing pearls before swine!† When he started inexplicably quoting lyrics to â€Å"Can't Buy Me Love† at the start of the second game, I really thought I was going to lose it. Cody nudged me. â€Å"He's getting tired. So is Tiara.† I glanced up at the scoreboard. It was a slight change, but those two were showing fewer strikes than spares and sometimes not even getting spares. Malachi remained consistently good, and V remained unstoppable. Over on our team, Peter and I hadn't changed, but Cody had continued – and was succeeding – in trying to prove his vampire skills. Hugh was also improving slightly, a phenomenon we'd seen with Roman sometimes. It was as though the imp needed to warm up in order to remember how to avoid his arm's tendency to throw curves. I exchanged glances with Cody. â€Å"I don't know that it's enough.† â€Å"You've done better than this in practice,† he told me gently. â€Å"I know you've got a bunch of stuff going on, but try to think if Roman was here. What he'd say. Then look at Jerome's face and tell me you don't want us to come out on top.† I didn't really care about Jerome keeping his pride around Nanette, but my friends' well-being did concern me. I knew their happiness would be directly influenced by Jerome's unhappiness. Sighing, I answered Cody with a resolute nod and tried to step up my game, racking my brains for all the words of wisdom that Roman had given me over the last couple of weeks. I admit, I hadn't always been paying as much attention as I could have. Nonetheless, something started clicking for me. I was a long way from being a pro anytime soon, but between me, Cody, and Hugh, we slowly began to keep up with Nanette's team. It was so subtle and so gradual that when we won by two points, everyone – including my teammates and me – could hardly believe it had happened. We all stared at the scoreboard in stunned silence. Only Carter was able to get anything out. â€Å"That,† he told Roger exuberantly, â€Å"is how a bird in the hand gets up before the early worm.† â€Å"That doesn't make any sense,† said Roger. Carter pointed at the scoreboard. â€Å"Neither does that, but there you have it.† Nanette's cool composure had vanished. I don't know if beating Jerome meant that much to her or if people in Portland just took bowling really seriously, but she immediately demanded a five-minute break. We watched as she pulled her team to the far side of the alley and gave them a talk. Judging from her wild hand motions and occasional expletives, it didn't sound like a very heartening talk. I glanced over at Jerome, who still kind of seemed to be in disbelief. â€Å"Any words of wisdom for us, boss?† I asked. He considered. â€Å"Yes. Don't lose.† Cody was already clinging to Peter's arm. â€Å"You have to come through for us here. We barely beat them just now, and you know she's putting the fear of God in them. That alone is going to give them some improvement. If you can just . . . I don't know. Get fewer splits. Do something. We can win this, but we need you.† Peter threw up his hands. â€Å"Don't you think I would if I could?† When Nanette and friends returned, they showed us that they were adding a new strategy to their repertoire: catcalling. Every time one of the Unholy Rollers went up to play, we were serenaded with insults about everything from our appearance to our abilities to our bowling shirts. That last one really set Peter on edge, and Tiara picked up on it quickly. â€Å"Did you pick that up at a thrift store? Oh, wait, they screen their items first. They'd never take a piece of shit like that.† â€Å"What's with that color? It's like a reject from a boy's baby shower.† â€Å"If your crappy shirts are going to say ‘Unholy Rollers,' shouldn't you at least be rolling the ball? That was more of a caber toss.† Peter took it all in silence, but I could see him becoming increasingly agitated. Hugh grimaced and leaned toward me. â€Å"She's really not that funny. I'd expect better from a succubus.† â€Å"At least Peter isn't doing any worse,† I said. â€Å"He's just getting splits in new and interesting ways.† â€Å"Which aren't going to save us, though,† said Cody grimly. It was true. We were staying even with them, but just barely. And when we were halfway through the game, it became clear we were slipping. Jerome was looking pissed off again, and Nanette's confidence had returned. â€Å"Come on, you guys,† said Carter, whom I hadn't expected to become a cheerleader. â€Å"You can do this. You're better than them.† It wasn't the angel's enthusiasm that changed the course of the game, however. It was when V finally spoke. Peter had just thrown his ball and amazingly knocked down four pins, which left behind a kind of three-way split I'd never even known was possible. We were all taken back. â€Å"You are the worst vampire I've ever seen,† said V, staring at the pins wide-eyed. I don't know what it was about those words that succeeded where our encouragement and Tiara's bad fashion taunts had failed. But suddenly, Peter became a vampire. And not just any vampire. A vampire who could bowl. From that point forward, everything he threw was a strike. And much like V, Peter didn't even deliberate it. He just walked up and threw, letting his vampire reflexes do the work. He quickly surpassed everyone on our team in skill, even Cody. Really, the only person who could match him was V. But it was enough, and somehow, against all odds, we won the third game. Hugh, Cody, and I erupted into cheers and traded high fives with Carter. Peter remained much more stoic, however, and regarded the other team coolly. â€Å"Don't count your chickens before they're hatched,† he told Roger. To Tiara, Peter said, â€Å"That shade of red makes you look like you have jaundice.† He paused. â€Å"And like a whore.† To V, Peter said nothing. Nanette and Jerome promptly got in an argument, most of which involved her making outlandish claims about how unfair it was to have two vampires on one team and how best of five would be the real determining factor. Jerome bantered back with her cheerfully. He was so smug about our victory, you would have thought he had thrown every ball himself. Seeing her consternation was just icing on the cake for him. â€Å"Well,† he said at one point, â€Å"we could do two more games, but your team seems terribly worn out. Perhaps once they have some time to recover mentally and physically, we can – â€Å" Jerome stopped and cocked his head, like he was hearing music the rest of us couldn't. A strange look came over his face. â€Å"Shit,† he said. â€Å"What?† asked Nanette. She seemed to realize something other than bowling had caught his attention. Near me, Carter had gone perfectly still. â€Å"I have to go,† said Jerome. And he went. Just like that, the demon vanished. I glanced around quickly, but no humans seemed to have noticed, thanks largely to our part of the bowling alley being deserted. Still, teleporting out like that in a public place was pretty irregular behavior for a greater immortal. Even irreverent demons generally knew enough to be discreet among humans. â€Å"Well,† said Nanette. â€Å"I guess there's no such thing as good winners. Sportsmanship is a lost art.† I thought that was a stretch coming from her, particularly after her team's verbal tirade. In fact, they soon all degenerated into arguing amongst themselves, each one making a plea to Nanette about how the loss had been someone else's fault. â€Å"Georgina,† said Carter, drawing my attention back. The smile he'd worn at our victory was gone. â€Å"I think it's a good idea if you go home.† â€Å"Why?† I asked. â€Å"We should celebrate.† For the first time since the fallout with Seth, I actually felt like having fun with my friends. â€Å"We need to call Roman too.† â€Å"Let's go to my place,† said Peter. â€Å"I can make up a meze platter in no time.† â€Å"Fine, fine,† said Carter, casting a glance over at Mei. She was still in her seat, trying to observe all conversations at once. â€Å"Let's just leave now. I'll teleport you when we're in the parking lot.† I tried to protest that, but Carter was too insistent on simply getting us all out of there. Minutes later, my teammates and I were headed out to the parking lot, still crowing over our victory and how Peter was the undisputed hero of the night. â€Å"Georgina?† I came to a halt. There, standing near my car, was Seth. Even in the harsh light of the parking lamps, everything about him seemed soft and inviting. The messy hair. The way he stood with his hands in his pockets. The Flock of Seagulls shirt that I could just make out underneath his flannel coat. â€Å"What are you doing here?† I asked, taking a few steps forward. My friends had come to an uncertain stop behind me. They all knew about my rocky state of affairs with Seth and watched me nervously. Seth glanced at my backup and then at me. â€Å"I . . . I wanted to talk to you.† â€Å"That's not what you said the last time we talked,† I said. The harsh words were out before I could stop them. I knew I should jump on the chance to talk, on Seth's willingness to talk at last . . . but some hurt place in me responded first. â€Å"I know,† said Seth. â€Å"I probably don't deserve it. But . . . I've been thinking about a lot of things, and then there's all this weirdness going on I don't quite understand . . . like, my mom moving in with you? And do you know why all these toy ponies keep showing up on Terry's doorstep?† â€Å"Why don't you come over to our place and have your heart-to-heart there,† said Peter. â€Å"It'll go better with hummus and wine.† Staring at Seth, I felt my heart ache. This could be it, just like Carter had said at New Year's, about how Seth and I still managed to come back to each other. I swallowed, both scared and anxious. â€Å"Maybe I should meet you guys later,† I said. â€Å"Seth and I can go somewhere and talk first.† â€Å"Georgina,† said Carter anxiously, â€Å"you really need to – â€Å" The car seemed to come out of nowhere, and, considering the way things worked in my world, it might literally have done so. All I knew is that one moment we were all standing around in the dark parking lot, and the next, a car was speeding toward us. Or rather, toward me. I couldn't discern any make or model and certainly not the driver. I probably wouldn't have known him or her anyway. All I saw were rapidly approaching headlights, heading toward where I stood alone, out in the open between my friends and Seth. When the car hit me, there was an intense moment of pain that radiated through my whole body. Then I felt nothing. My sight shifted, and I had the surreal sense of looking down on my sprawled body while my friends hurried to me and the car sped away. Some were trying to talk to me, some were calling 911. Some were talking to each other. The scene began to dissolve in my vision, fading to black. And not just the scene. Me. I was dissolving. I was losing all substance. I was becoming nothing. But as I faded away, as the world faded away, I heard a few last words from my friends before their voices also faded. â€Å"Georgina! Georgina!† That was Seth, saying my name like a prayer. â€Å"She's not breathing,† said Cody. â€Å"And she doesn't have a pulse. Hugh! Do something. You're a doctor.† â€Å"I can't,† Hugh said softly. â€Å"This is beyond me. Her soul . . . her soul's not here.† â€Å"Of course it is!† said Cody. â€Å"Souls stay with their immortals.† â€Å"Not in this situation,† said Hugh. â€Å"What are you talking about?† exclaimed Seth, voice cracking. â€Å"Carter! You can fix this. You can fix anything. You have to save her.† â€Å"This is beyond me too,† said Carter. â€Å"I'm sorry.† â€Å"There's still one thing you can do,† said Hugh. â€Å"One thing you have to do.† â€Å"Yes,† agreed Carter, voice full of sorrow. â€Å"I'll go get Roman. . . .† And then they were all gone. I was gone.

Types of Power in a Negotiation

What are the five types of power? Referent- power that comes from admiration or respect from others subject to such power Reward- power that comes from using rewards as a way to get things accomplished Legitimate- having a title that grants power, such as CEO Expert- power that comes from having supreme knowledge of the subject Coercive – using punishment as a way to get things done Consider a negotiation with which you are familiar. What parties were identified? Who had power or influence? Explain why.I personally don't find myself negotiating through situations on a daily basis, my work environment is very fast-paced and we usually make decisions very quickly. But I can definitely see these types of power struggles in a family situation or even a marriage. Personally I know I have used the reward and coercive powers to get my kids to do things. Being a parent also gives that legitimate power, I am MOM therefore what I say goes. Based on your experience with a negotiation, ho w does having one or more of the five types of power affect the dynamics of the negotiation?I would have to say that at work our team Leader beyond having legitimate power, he also has referent and expert power. During department meetings to discuss methods to improve our efficiency we all give our feedback and go back and forth with our ideas. It is his knowledge of the company and years of experience that usually provide the most efficient approach to improving our dept. Having the respect from everyone in the department as well as other co-workers initiates the negotiation towards a productive solution.

Foundation S N Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Foundation S N - Essay Example Eating and drinking are integral parts of human existence, and this is a very important part of activities of daily living in Roper et als model of living. I was given to understand that as a nurse, I have a primary role within the multidisciplinary team to ensure that my patient receive food, fluids, and adequate nutrition when he is under my care. My plan also involved educating him regarding a healthy diet (Mentes, Chang, and Morris, 2006, 392-406). This patient had difficulty in eating and drinking due to stroke and resultant paralysis. Being fully aware that it was primarily my responsibility to feed him and ensure that he meets his nutritional requirements, I first assessed his clinical situation (Fowles and Feucht, 2004, 429-433). Assistance would be necessary, but my goal would be to set a goal of achieving independence in terms of eating and drinking. I knew that the thought of having to be fed is a threat to the patients individual integrity and self-esteem. Similar feelings were happening in the patient, and I demonstrated considerable care and sensitivity to handle the whole affair of feeding and drinking and made every effort to minimise the negative aspects (Wilson, 2006, 413-416). Before preparing and serving the meal, this patient was offered a bedpan followed by facilities for hand washing. Eating would have been easier if the patient could have been able to sit out of bed, but this was next to impossible in this case, since he was bedfast and had no balance to maintain a straight posture. As a result, support was arranged to make him sit upright on the bed, and a suitable table was arranged and placed in front of him where the food and drink can be kept. This would allow him to see his food and indicate preferences. I offered the patient also the opportunity to clean his teeth and use a mouthwash. To ensure a relaxed social atmosphere, I sat at the same level as him. Prior to this, I identified

Prepare journal entries to record transactions Essay

Prepare journal entries to record transactions - Essay Example For the buyer, the cash balance will decrease or reduce by the amount he used to purchase that item, and on the other handing he will have acquired a loaf of bread. On the side of the seller, his amount of cash will increase by the price of the loaf of bread and while his stock of bread will reduce consequently (Price, Haddock, & Farina, 2012). Accounting tries to record both two events of the transaction, on the financial statement of the business. Without the concept of double entry and maintenance of these accounting records, the records of the business or the company, will just show a partial report on the business or the company state of affairs (Stickney, 2010). Generally, the resulting effect of two entries is known as debit and credits. Accounting major principle is that for every debit entry, it must be followed by the subsequent credit entry. The debit entries are the ones that result from the increase in assets, and expenses and those which lead to the decrease in liabilities, equities and incomes. On the other hand, credit entries are the ones that lead to the decrease in expenses and assets, and those that leads to the increase in equity liabilities and income. A series of these entries must lead to the balancing of respective accounts. These accounts may be posted to one general account that has columns of description, folio, debit side and credit side. After the entry of each transaction, a brief explanation is made. This description must accurately explain the traction which took place so that any person who sees it for the first time will be able to understand what happens on the respective entries. Each and every journal entered can also be matched with the supportive document, which is relevant to the entry made. These supportive documents could be a receipt or check stub by the use of folio or code number. These folio number or code, cross reference between different documents. Large business

Mobile Phones Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

Mobile Phones - Essay Example However, it was only in the late 80’s that the first commercial or hand held mobile phone was introduced to the world by Motorola, at a very high price range, targeting only the elite class. The handsets were massive, inconvenient to use but still they reflected status and style symbol. The first generation cellular system was the Nordic Mobile Telephone System (NTMS) launched in 1981 in Finland, featuring fully automatic options and international roaming as a huge incentive. It was in 1990 that the first digital cellular phone was launched in a smaller size, though used mainly for making and receiving calls while on the move. Today it’s a different scenario with cell phones. The kind of handsets with the kinds of features made available, it has made gigantic leaps in terms of technology improvement. One can do almost anything with it, take pictures, make videos, chat with friends, and send messages and many other features. Over 798 million people today access internet or mobile internet services using a mobile phone. Mobile phones today have become an inseparable part of our society. It can be considered one of the best inventions man has made so far. It is the perfect communication tool with distance issues getting resolved with just one click of a button. It has proved most valuable in any emergency situations. We never know when we or our loved ones may be in an emergency situation; this is the best mode to communicate (Castells, 2007). It is also very functional for business people and trading companies as they can be in touch with their clients all the time. Today businesses are promoted through calls on mobiles and using the Short Messaging Services (SMS). Latest updates, news, online transactions are all easily accessible through mobile phones. Any kind of business can be done over the phone, be it share business or real estate or the local florist, everything is available on the click of a button. Mobile phones are of

Jeyes business 's generic and distinctive marketing strategies Case Study

Jeyes business 's generic and distinctive marketing strategies - Case Study Example The main research question to be speaking to in this reading is whether the chief executive officer (CEO) ought to unilaterally exercise strategic leadership on behalf of the whole organization or whether such leadership ought to be shared by one or more additional groups in the pecking order of management. The achievement of the strategic objectives fundamental strategic decisions is talented through the effectual practice of strategic leadership. In spite of the self-evident perceptual imprecision and cognitive limitations of strategic leaders, their imitation of the factors causal to or detracting from victorious outcomes of strategic choices are extremely important for the long-term feasibility of the organization (Wheelen, Thomas L. Hunger). The study fundamental this research is directed toward determine the truly important leadership factors that make a payment to the achievement of implemented strategic decisions as seen during the eyes of the chief executive officer (CEO). The exact focus is on strategic leadership at the height of the CEO. There are additional studies that are anxious with the CEO as a strategic leader. But, for the mainly part, these are not studies in which the CEO is the elite participant. This study is based on a learning of strategic leadership at the CEO level as apparent by the in office chief executives with a sight toward formative whether victorious strategic decisions ought to be made unilaterally or jointly at the uppermost levels of the business. Introduction The following report describes and analyses Jeyes business 's generic and distinctive marketing strategies, as well as providing accurate industry, competitor, market, and SWOT analysis'. Evaluation of Jeyes business 's marketing strategy is conducted, thus analyzing the strengths and weaknesses of the strategy. Lastly the report recommends probable future courses of actions obtainable to Jeyes business, in order to get better profits and stop mistakes in the future. It is important to emphasize that the study of International strategic planning methodology should not be limited to techniques alone. numerous books have been written on planning method over the years, but without firm basics in theory and/or empirical confirmation, very few have endured the examination of time. Accordingly, this quantity is a compendium of together theory and experiential proof that pertain especially to how firms ought to be managed deliberately. Thus, the application of strategic management hypothesis and experiential proof to preparation technique is the subject matter of strategic planning methodology, and this quantity which, we consider, is the first to attain such a nexus (Schuler, R. S., 2003, 419-459). Strategic development technique is, to strategic management theory, what automatic engineering is to hypothetical physics. More than just procedural guidelines, then, this research contains main beliefs of applied strategic management theory and experiential evidence that are either usually accepted or adequately verifiable to serve as bases for expert practice. mutually strategic management scholars and grave strategic planning practitioners who wish a total collection of typically accepted planning main beliefs ought to find this

Sould the Soviet Union Be Regarded As a Socialist, Communist or Essay

Sould the Soviet Union Be Regarded As a Socialist, Communist or Totalitarian State - Essay Example This paper will discuss whether the Soviet Union should be regarded as a socialist, communist or a totalitarian state. Socialist State A socialist state is a state that practices economics under which productive properties such as corporations are wholly owned by the state. It is the state that determines everything that takes place in these companies. In this regard, in a socialist state, the economic systems consist of well organized production which directly satisfies the economic requirements and needs of the people so that the products and services would then be produced for consumption instead of for individual profit. In a socialist state, the political system is composed of many arrays of political philosophies. These include revolutionary socialism and reformism (Gonner 2010). Communist state A communist state is one in which the government is in charge of the overall economy of the state. Under this system of government, a single party dominates the political system. It dif fers from the socialist state in that with the communist state, people in common have control over property. The communist state is based on a system that everybody irrespective of place, class or country has the power to own factories, tools and farms used in the production of goods and services. Therefore, there is no private ownership of property in the communist state. ... This is evident in counties like France, Italy and India (Pipes 1997). Totalitarian State A totalitarian state is that system of government under which the government recognizes no limit to its jurisdictions, and tends to dictate every aspect of private and public life. Totalitarian states maintain political control through propaganda campaigns which in most cases spread through the state controlled media (Adler and Pouwels 2011 p.576). It is a single party rule marked by control over the economy, political repression and personality cultism. This system of government restricts freedom of expression, practices mass surveillance, and usually unleashes terror to intimidate those who are opposed to the powers that be. This system has been seen in Italy, and Nazi German. Adler and Pouwels (2011 p.575) note that the ideology in totalitarian states is distinctive, mobilizing, and monolithic in nature. Another feature prominent in this kind of system is state control of the overall economy done through preponderance of government ownership of the means of production. The Form of Government in the Soviet Union Harding, Political Studies Association of the United Kingdom, and the Communist Politics Group (1984 p.63) note that in the Soviet Union, institutional rivalry was prevalent. In this case, state institutions and some political parties had common interests which, sometimes, differing from those of other parties and state institutions. Localism and departmentalism existed within the governance structure (Harding, Political studies association of the United Kingdom and the Communist Politics Group 1984 p.63). Convert competition for political office done on the basis of cabinet politics was also prominent in the system. Harding, Political Studies Association of

Offer & Acceptance Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Offer & Acceptance - Article Example McKendrick E. (2007) defines offer as offer is an expression of willingness to enter in to contract on certain terms. It must be made with the intention that it will become binding upon acceptance. There must be no further negotiations or discussions required [Storer v Manchester City Council,1 Gibson v Manchester City Council2]. In Storer the Court of Appeal establish that there was a binding contract. Here the fact that the ABC noticed in newsletter that will pay '500 to anyone who runs in and complete at least five races sponsored by the British Distance Running Association. According to Partridge v Crittenden3 normally advertisement is an invitation to treat for a bilateral contract but here ABC put notice in its newsletter. However, in Carlill v Carbolic Smock Ball Company4 decided that advertisement was a unilateral offer. It also held that advertisement was not an invitation to treat but was an offer to the whole world and that a contract was made with those persons who perfor med the condition 'on the faith of the advertisement'. In Bowerman v ABTA5 it is likely that a court would find that the advertisement was an offer. So it can be assumed that ABC made a valid offer. Now it needs to consider whether the offer has been accepted or not by Fast Fred, Swift Sally and Heavy Harry. McKendrick E. (2007) defines acceptance that an acceptance is an unqualified expression of assent to the terms proposed by the offeror. An offer is effective when it is communicated to the offeree. Proof of an offer to enter in to legal relations upon definite terms must be followed by the production of evidence from which the courts may infer an intention by the offeree to accept that offer. The acceptance can be made by words or by conduct. However, the communication of the acceptance is important. The general rule is that an acceptance must be communicated to the offeror. This is strict requirement. It must actually be brought to the notice of the offeror. It is for the offeree to ensure that communication has been made Powell v Lee. The general rule is that acceptance is not effective until it is communicated to the offeror and the acceptance cannot be made through sile nce. In Felthouse v Bindley6 the offeror cannot waive communication if that would be to the detriment of the offeree. In Brogden v Metropolitan Railway Company7, where the offeree accepted the offer by performance. Acceptance occurs when the offeree's words or conduct give rise to objective inference that the offeree assents to the offeree's terms. It is a vital question whether Emilio's initiatives has been treated as specific performance. The first involves Fast Fred who had run in four BDRA races. Acceptance required to complete at least five races. He voted against the Fat Slob party and he immediately cancelled his entry in the remaining BDRA races for the year. So no contract has been formed between the ABC and Fast Fred. McKendrick E. (2005) said that to be a valid acceptance two things must be considered these are the facts of acceptance and Communication of acceptance. However, if courts consider Brogden v Metropolitan Railway Company then performance is enough to form a contract. Swift Sally wanted to comply the condition and had run in the three BDRA races. Here she accepted the off

Critically analyse the territorial and extraterritorial ambit of the Assignment

Critically analyse the territorial and extraterritorial ambit of the offence of murder under English Criminal Law - Assignment Example die of the wound or hurt etc. within a year and a day after the same† (Allen 309). It is imperative to note that under the English criminal system, murder is classified into the category of homicide and manslaughter. Legally, homicide is a more serious offence in comparison to manslaughter. In order for a person to be charged with homicide or manslaughter, the elements of the definition of murder must be proved to be true. Actus Reus Under the English Law, the Actus Reus for murder must be present before one can be convicted for the offence of murder. One aspect of Actus Reus is that act of murder must be unlawful. This implies that act should not have any legal basis to justify its occurrence. Under the English criminal system, the law recognizes some circumstances under which murder can be justified. For instance, killing someone in self defense can be admissible in a court as a legally permissible reason for murder. The justification for killing also depends on the circumsta nces under which the deceased was killed and the role of the accused in the murder (Chalmers & Fiona 219). In essence, killing under English law may include accelerating another person’s death due to an act or an omission. ... This means that any killing that occurs under all circumstances except during war are is classified as an offence of murder. Enemy killing is not justified by law unless it occurs during a war or events thereof (David 453). English Law is precise in regards to the concept of â€Å"Queen’s peace† by expressly stating that all situations except during war are classified as â€Å"Queen’s peace†. Even formally identified foreign enemies cannot be lawfully killed under the pretext that they are outside the scope of the Queen’s peace. It is imperative to that this principle applies both within and outside the territories of the English criminal law. The specific act or omission that results in the murder of a person must have a substantial contribution as cause of death for an accused person to be convicted for the offence of murder. The act or omission and the death must be linked in order for a conviction to be upheld. In essence, the prosecution has th e burden of proving that the accused did more than minimally or negligibly contribute to the death. The contribution of the accused person to the death must be considered substantial in the context of the law (Hirst 229). In this regard, even if the action or omission just accelerated the death, the accused is legally liable for the death. For instance, in R v Dyson (1908), it was held that the defendant was liable for the offence of murder even though the defendant had only hastened death. In order to break the causation chain, it is upon the defendant to prove that the intervening act was the main cause of the death (Cryer 152). This may occur in instances whereby a person’s actions or inactions are part of a chain of actions that can be attributed to the death. It is only an unforeseeable or unexpected action

The Role of Privat Sector in Education Case Study

The Role of Privat Sector in Education - Case Study Example In many countries, the role of providing education has been left as a responsibility of the government. The government has therefore played an important role in ensuring all children have had access to quality education that helps them achieve their best in life. In the United States, the role of probed education has been left as a duty of the federal government. The united state has followed important decision that has been made by international bodies like the United Nations which has declared it the right of each and every child to access education. (Glanda 2003, p. 8) But the burden of providing education to the citizens has been weighing heavy on the government and there has been a call for the involvement of the private sector in providing education to the public. As a result the private sector has responded well and there have been many efforts by the private sector to address the needs of education of the state. This has been as a result of call by the government and from other stakeholders in the education sector on the need to have an education that is quality and relevant to the needs of the public (Bates 2002, p. 69) This paper will look at how the private sector can be involved in the provision of education to the citizens. It will look at how the private sector can be major players in the education sector. ... It is a sector that is independent from the control of the state. The private sector is an important sector in the economy as it supplements the government efforts in poisoning goods and services to the public. Therefore we can say that the private sector is a part of a nation but which is owned by individuals. The private sector is aimed at making profit unlike the government which is aimed at providing social welfare services to the citizens. The private sector provides a various of goods and service. But most of the services it provides are not that basic in nature. The government ensures that it take to the provision of basic services to the citizens. Therefore the private sector is involved in the provision of goods and services that supplements those that are provided by the government. For example, the private sector is involved in production of goods and services. However in the recent past there has been increased involvement of the private sector in the works of the government. In this regard, the private sector has made contributions in the health sector where the government has now come up with a comprehensive policy that addressed the needs of every citizen. (Coombe 2001, p. 20) In supplementing the efforts of the government, the private sector is involved in a number of ways. The recent trend in many countries has been that of delegating some of the government service to the private sector. Unlike the government, the private sector is known for efficiency in its work. This is because it is more oriented at providing the best goods and service since it operates in a competitive environment. Therefore the government has been delegating some

According To Criminal Justice Today Essay Example for Free

According To Criminal Justice Today Essay â€Å"Modern sentencing practices are influenced by five goals, which weave their way through widely disseminated professional and legal models, continuing public calls for sentencing reform.† The five goals of contemporary sentencing are Retribution, Incapacitation, Deterrence, Rehabilitation and Restoration. We are going to discuss what each goal means for sentencing criminals. Retribution a demand for punishment based on a need for vengeance. This is the earliest known rationale for punishment. Early cultures would punish almost every offender almost immediately and without a hearing. Severe penalties like death and exile where common forms of punishment even for minor offenses in early societies. The term just deserts means the offenders sentencing holds that the offenders deserve the punishment they receive at the hands of the law and the punishment should be appropriate with the type of crime. Incapacitation is the second goal of criminal sentencing and seeks to protect the innocent members of society from offenders who might harm them. Unlike retribution, incapacitation requires only restraint and not punishment like sending the offender to a correctional institution without imprisonment. The third example is deterrence. When you think of deterrence, it uses the example or threat of punishment that will convince people that committing crimes is not worth the penalty. Rehabilitation is the fourth example and brings about fundamental changes in offenders and their overall behavior. The ultimate goal of rehabilitation is to reduce the overall number of criminal offenses. Rehabilitation means to return a person to their previous condition. The final example is restoration. Restoration is a sentencing goal that seeks to address what damage was called by the offender that will make those who suffered whole again. This can range from victim’s assistance and/or supporting the victims with some form of compensations.

History of Chemical and Biological Warfare Agents

History of Chemical and Biological Warfare Agents Biological warfare (BW), also known as germ warfare, is the use of pathogens such as viruses, bacteria, other disease-causing biological agents, or the toxins produced by them as biological weapons (or bioweapons). There is a clear overlap between biological warfare and chemical warfare, as the use of toxins produced by living organisms is considered under the provisions of both the Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention and the Chemical Weapons Convention. Toxins, which are of organic origin, are often called midspectrum agents. A biological weapon may be intended to kill, incapacitate, or seriously impair a person, group of people, or even an entire population. It may also be defined as the material or defense against such employment. Biological warfare is a military technique that can be used by nation-states or non-national groups. In the latter case, or if a nation-state uses it clandestinely, it may also be considered bioterrorism. History: Biological warfare has been practiced repeatedly throughout history. Before the 20th century, the use of biological agents took three major forms: Deliberate poisoning of food and water with infectious material Use of microorganisms, toxins or animals, living or dead, in a weapon system Use of biologically inoculated fabrics The ancient world: The earliest documented incident of the intention to use biological weapons is recorded in Hittite texts of 1500-1200 B.C, in which victims of plague were driven into enemy lands. Although the Assyrians knew of ergot, a parasitic fungus of rye which produces ergotism when ingested, there is no evidence that they poisoned enemy wells with the fungus, as has been claimed. According to Homers epic poems about the legendary Trojan War, the Iliad and the Odyssey, spears and arrows were tipped with poison. During the First Sacred War in Greece, in about 590 BC, Athens and the Amphictionic League poisoned the water supply of the besieged town of Kirrha (near Delphi) with the toxic plant hellebore. The Roman commander Manius Aquillus poisoned the wells of besieged enemy cities in about 130 BC. During the 4th century BC Scythian archers tipped their arrow tips with snake venom, human blood, and animal feces to cause wounds to become infected. There are numerous other instances of the use of plant toxins, venoms, and other poisonous substances to create biological weapons in antiquity. In 184 B.C, Hannibal of Carthage had clay pots filled with venomous snakes and instructed his soldiers to throw the pots onto the decks of Pergamene ships. In about AD 198, the city of Hatra (near Mosul, Iraq) repulsed the Roman army led by Septimius Severus by hurling clay pots filled with live scorpions at them. Medieval biological warfare: When the Mongol Empire established commercial and political connections between the Eastern and Western areas of the world, its Mongol armies and merchant caravans probably inadvertently brought bubonic plague from central Asia to the Middle East and Europe. The Black Death swept through Eurasia, killing approximately one third to one half of the population and changing the course of Asian and European history. During the Middle Ages, victims of the bubonic plague were used for biological attacks, often by flinging corpses and excrement over castle walls using catapults. In 1346, the bodies of Mongol warriors of the Golden Horde who had died of plague were thrown over the walls of the besieged Crimean city of Kaffa (now Theodosia). It has been speculated that this operation may have been responsible for the advent of the Black Death in Europe. At the siege of Thun lEveque in 1340, during the Hundred Years War, the attackers catapulted decomposing animals into the besieged area. Modern times: The 18th Century: The Native American population was decimated after contact with the Old World due to the introduction of many different fatal diseases. There are two documented cases of alleged and attempted germ warfare. The first, during a parley at Fort Pitt on June 24, 1763, Ecuyer gave representatives of the besieging Delawares two blankets and a handkerchief that had been exposed to smallpox, hoping to spread the disease to the Natives in order to end the siege. William Trent, the militia commander, left records that clearly indicated that the purpose of giving the blankets was to Convey the Smallpox to the Indians. British commander Lord Jeffrey Amherst and Swiss-British officer Colonel Henry Bouquet, whose correspondence referenced the idea of giving smallpox-infected blankets to Indians in the course of Pontiacs Rebellion. Historian Francis Parkman verifies four letters from June 29, July 13, 16 and 26th, 1763. Excerpts: Commander Lord Jeffrey Amherst writes July 16, 1763, P.S. You will Do well to try to Inocculate the Indians by means of Blankets, as well as to try Every other method that can serve to Extirpate this Execrable Race. I should be very glad your Scheme for Hunting them Down by Dogs could take Effect, Colonel Henry Bouquet replies July 26, 1763, I received yesterday your Excellencys letters of 16th with their Inclosures. The signal for Indian Messengers, and all your directions will be observed. While the intent for biological warfare is clear, there is a debate among historians as to whether this actually took place despite Bouquets affirmative reply to Amherst and each having written to the other about it twice. Smallpox transmitted to Native American tribes could have been due to the transfer of the disease to blankets during transportation. Historians have been unable to establish whether or not this plan was implemented, particularly in light of the fact that smallpox was already present in the region, and that scientific knowledge of disease at that time had yet to discover bacteria or develop an understanding of plague vectors. Regardless of whether this plan was carried out, trade and combat provided ample opportunity for transmission of the disease. See also: Small pox during Pontiacs Rebellion. The 19th Century: In 1834 Cambridge Diarist Richard Henry Dana visited San Francisco on a merchant ship. His ship traded many items including blankets with Mexicans and Russians who had established outposts on the northern side of the San Francisco Bay. Local histories document that the California smallpox epidemic began at the Russian fort soon after they left. Blankets were a popular trading item, and the cheapest source of them was second-hand blankets which were often contaminated. During the American Civil War, General Sherman reported that Confederate forces shot farm animals in ponds upon which the Union depended for drinking water. This would have made the water unpleasant to drink, although the actual health risks from dead bodies of humans and animals which did not die of disease are minimal. Jack London in his story Yah! Yah! Yah! describes a punitive European expedition to a Pacific island deliberately exposing the Polynesian population to Measles, of which many of them died s:South Sea Tales/Yah! Yah! Yah!. While much of the material for Londons South Sea Tales is derived from his personal experience in the region, it is not certain that this particular incident is historical. The 20th Century: During the First World War, Germany pursued an ambitious biological warfare program. Using diplomatic pouches and couriers, the German General Staff supplied small teams of saboteurs in the Russian Duchy of Finland, and in the then-neutral countries of Romania, the US and Argentina. In Finland, Scandinavian freedom fighters mounted on reindeer placed ampules of anthrax in stables of Russian horses in 1916. Anthrax was also supplied to the German military attache in Bucharest, as was Glanders, which was employed against livestock destined for Allied service. German intelligence officer and US citizen Dr. Anton Casimir Dilger established a secret lab in the basement of his sisters home in Chevy Chase, Maryland, that produced Glanders which was used to infect livestock in ports and inland collection points including, at least, Newport News, Norfolk, Baltimore, and New York, and probably St. Louis and Covington, Kentucky. In Argentina, German agents also employed Glanders in the port of Buenos Aires and also tried to ruin wheat harvests with a destructive fungus. During the 1948 Israel War of Independence, Red Cross reports raised suspicion that the Jewish Haganah militia had released Salmonella typhi bacteria into the water supply for the city of Acre, causing an outbreak of typhoid among the inhabitants. Egyptian troops later captured disguised Haganah soldiers near wells in Gaza, whom they executed for allegedly attempting another attack. Israel denies these allegations. During the Cold War, US conscientious objectors were used as consenting test subjects for biological agents in a program known as Operation Whitecoat. There were also many unpublicized tests carried out on the public during the Cold War. E120 biological bomblet, developed before the U.S. signed the Biological and Toxic Weapons Convention Considerable research on the topic was performed by the United States (see US Biological Weapon Testing), the Soviet Union, and probably other major nations throughout the Cold War era, though it is generally believed that biological weapons were never used after World War II. This view was challenged by China and North Korea, who accused the United States of large-scale field testing of biological weapons, including the use of disease-carrying insects against them during the Korean War (1950-1953). Biological agents: Biological warfare is the deliberate use of disease and natural poisons to incapacitate humans. It employs pathogens as weapons. Pathogens are the micro-organism, whether bacterial, viral or protozoic, that cause disease. There are four kinds of biological warfare agents: bacteria, viruses, rickettsiae and fungi. Biological weapons are distinguished by being living organisms, that reproduce within their host victims, who then become contagious with a deadly, if weakening, multiplier effect. Toxins in contrast do not reproduce in the victim and need only the briefest of incubation periods; they kill within a few hours. Biological Weapons Characteristics: Anti-personnel BW: Ideal characteristics of biological weapons targeting humans are high infectivity, high potency, non-availability of vaccines, and delivery as an aerosol. Diseases most likely to be considered for use as biological weapons are contenders because of their lethality (if delivered efficiently), and robustness (making aerosol delivery feasible). The biological agents used in biological weapons can often be manufactured quickly and easily. The primary difficulty is not the production of the biological agent but delivery in an effective form to a vulnerable target. For example, anthrax is considered an effective agent for several reasons. First, it forms hardy spores, perfect for dispersal aerosols. Second, pneumonic (lung) infections of anthrax usually do not cause secondary infections in other people. Thus, the effect of the agent is usually confined to the target. A pneumonic anthrax infection starts with ordinary cold symptoms and quickly becomes lethal, with a fatality rate that is 90% or higher. Finally, friendly personnel can be protected with suitable antibiotics. A mass attack using anthrax would require the creation of aerosol particles of 1.5 to 5 micrometres. Too large and the aerosol would be filtered out by the respiratory system. Too small and the aerosol would be inhaled and exhaled. Also, at this size, nonconductive powders tend to clump and cling because of electrostatic charges. This hinders dispersion. So the material must be treated to insulate and discharge the charges. The aerosol must be delivered so that rain and sun does not rot it, and yet the human lung can be infected. There are other technological difficulties as well. Diseases considered for weaponization, or known to be weaponized include anthrax , ebola, Marburg virus, plague , cholera , tularemia, brucellosis, Q fever, Bolivian hemorrhagic fever, Coccidioides mycosis , Glanders, Melioidosis, Shigella, Rocky Mountain spotted fever, typhus , Psittacosis, yellow fever , Japanese B encephalitis , Rift Valley fever, and smallpox [19][31]. Naturally-occurring toxins that can be used as weapons include ricin, SEB, botulism toxin, saxitoxin, and many mycotoxins. The organisms causing these diseases are known as select agents. In the United States, their possession, use, and transfer are regulated by the Centers for Disease Control and Preventions Select Agent Program. Anti-agriculture BW: Biological warfare can also specifically target plants to destroy crops or defoliate vegetation. The United States and Britain discovered plant growth regulators (i.e., herbicides) during the Second World War, and initiated an herbicidal warfare program that was eventually used in Malaya and Vietnam in counter insurgency. Though herbicides are chemicals, they are often grouped with biological warfare as bioregulators in a similar manner as biotoxins. Scorched earth tactics or destroying livestock and farmland were carried out in the Vietnam war and Eelam War in Sri Lanka. The United States developed an anti-crop capability during the Cold War that used plant diseases (bioherbicides, or mycoherbicides) for destroying enemy agriculture. It was believed that destruction of enemy agriculture on a strategic scale could thwart Sino-Soviet aggression in a general war. Diseases such as wheat blast and rice blast were weaponized in aerial spray tanks and cluster bombs for delivery to enemy water sheds in agricultural regions to initiate epiphytotics (epidemics among plants). When the United States renounced its offensive biological warfare program in 1969 and 1970, the vast majority of its biological arsenal was composed of these plant diseases. In 1980s Soviet Ministry of Agriculture had successfully developed variants of foot-and-mouth disease and rinderpest against cows, African swine fever for pigs, and psittacosis to kill chicken. These agents were prepared to spray them down from tanks attached to airplanes over hundreds of miles. The secret program was code-named Ecology Biodefence: Role of public health departments and disease surveillance: It is important to note that all of the classical and modern biological weapons organisms are animal diseases, the only exception being smallpox. Thus, in any use of biological weapons, it is highly likely that animals will become ill either simultaneously with, or perhaps earlier than humans. Indeed, in the largest biological weapons accident known- the anthrax outbreak in Sverdlovsk (now Yekaterinburg) in the Soviet Union in 1979, sheep became ill with anthrax as far as 200 kilometers from the release point of the organism from a military facility in the southeastern portion of the city (known as Compound 19 and still off limits to visitors today, see Sverdlovsk Anthrax leak). Thus, a robust surveillance system involving human clinicians and veterinarians may identify a bioweapons attack early in the course of an epidemic, permitting the prophylaxis of disease in the vast majority of people (and/or animals) exposed but not yet ill. For example in the case of anthrax, it is likely that by 24 36 hours after an attack, some small percentage of individuals (those with compromised immune system or who had received a large dose of the organism due to proximity to the release point) will become ill with classical symptoms and signs (including a virtually unique chest X-ray finding, often recognized by public health officials if they receive timely reports). By making these data available to local public health officials in real time, most models of anthrax epidemics indicate that more than 80% of an exposed population can receive antibiotic treatment before becoming symptomatic, and thus avoid the moderately high mortality of the disease. Identification of bioweapons: The goal of biodefense is to integrate the sustained efforts of the national and homeland security, medical, public health, intelligence, diplomatic, and law enforcement communities. Health care providers and public health officers are among the first lines of defense. In some countries private, local, and provincial (state) capabilities are being augmented by and coordinated with federal assets, to provide layered defenses against biological weapons attacks. During the first Gulf War the United Nations activated a biological and chemical response team, Task Force Scorpio, to respond to any potential use of weapons of mass destruction on civilians. The traditional approach toward protecting agriculture, food, and water: focusing on the natural or unintentional introduction of a disease is being strengthened by focused efforts to address current and anticipated future biological weapons threats that may be deliberate, multiple, and repetitive. The growing threat of biowarfare agents and bioterrorism has led to the development of specific field tools that perform on-the-spot analysis and identification of encountered suspect materials. One such technology, being developed by researchers from the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL), employs a sandwich immunoassay, in which fluorescent dye-labeled antibodies aimed at specific pathogens are attached to silver and gold nanowires. Biological agent A sampling of Bacillus anthracis-Anthrax A biological agent is a bacterium, virus, prion, fungus, or biological toxin that can be used in bioterrorism or biological warfare. More than 1200 different kinds of biological agents have been described and studied to date. Applying a slightly broader definition, some eukaryotes (for example parasites) and their associated toxins can be considered as biological agents. Biological agents have the ability to adversely affect human health in a variety of ways, ranging from relatively mild allergic reactions to serious medical conditions, even death. These organisms are ubiquitous in the natural environment; they are found in water, soil, plants, and animals. Because many biological agents reproduce rapidly and require minimal resources for preservation, they are a potential danger in a wide variety of occupational settings. Antibiotic resistance: Antibiotic resistance is a specific type of drug resistance when a microorganism has the ability of withstanding the effects of antibiotics. Antibiotic resistance evolves via natural selection acting upon random mutation, but it can also be engineered by applying an evolutionary stress on a population. Once such a gene is generated, bacteria can then transfer the genetic information in a horizontal fashion (between individuals) by conjugation, transduction, or transformation. Many antibiotic resistance genes reside on plasmids, facilitating their transfer. If a bacterium carries several resistance genes, it is called multiresistant or, informally, a superbug. The term antimicrobial resistance is sometimes used to explicitly encompass organisms other than bacteria. Antibiotic resistance can also be introduced artificially into a microorganism through laboratory protocols, sometimes used as a selectable marker to examine the mechanisms of gene transfer or to identify individuals that absorbed a piece of DNA that included the resistance gene and another gene of interest. Causes: The widespread use of antibiotics both inside and outside of medicine is playing a significant role in the emergence of resistant bacteria. They are often used in animals but also in other industries which at least in the case of agricultural use lead to the spread of resistant strains to human populations. In some countries antibiotics are sold over the counter without a prescription which compounds the problem. In human medicine the major problem of the emergence of resistant bacteria is due to misuse and overuse of antibiotics by doctors as well as patients. Other practices contributing towards resistance include the addition of antibiotics to the feed of livestock. Household use of antibacterials in soaps and other products, although not clearly contributing to resistance, is also discouraged (as not being effective at infection control). Also unsound practices in the pharmaceutical manufacturing industry can contribute towards the likelihood of creating antibiotic resistant stra ins. Certain antibiotic classes are highly associated with colonisation with superbugs compared to other antibiotic classes. The risk for colonisation increases if there is a lack of sensitivity (resistance) of the superbugs to the antibiotic used and high tissue penetration as well as broad spectrum activity against good bacteria. In the case of MRSA, increased rates of MRSA infections are seen with glycopeptides, cephalosporins and especially quinolones. In the case of colonisation with C difficile the high risk antibiotics include cephalosporins and in particular quinolones and clindamycin. Mechanisms: Antibiotic resistance can be a result of horizontal gene transfer,[30] and also of unlinked point mutations in the pathogen genome and a rate of about 1 in 108 per chromosomal replication. The antibiotic action against the pathogen can be seen as an environmental pressure; those bacteria which have a mutation allowing them to survive will live on to reproduce. They will then pass this trait to their offspring, which will result in a fully resistant colony. The four main mechanisms by which microorganisms exhibit resistance to antimicrobials are: Drug inactivation or modification: e.g. enzymatic deactivation of Penicillin G in some penicillin-resistant bacteria through the production of ÃŽÂ ²-lactamases. Alteration of target site: e.g. alteration of PBP-the binding target site of penicillins-in MRSA and other penicillin-resistant bacteria. Alteration of metabolic pathway: e.g. some sulfonamide-resistant bacteria do not require para-aminobenzoic acid (PABA), an important precursor for the synthesis of folic acid and nucleic acids in bacteria inhibited by sulfonamides. Instead, like mammalian cells, they turn to utilizing preformed folic acid. Reduced drug accumulation: by decreasing drug permeability and/or increasing active efflux (pumping out) of the drugs across the cell surface. Conclusion: Specific consensus recommendations are made regarding the diagnosis of anthrax, indications for vaccination, therapy for those exposed, postexposure prophylaxis, decontamination of the environment, and additional research needs. Of the numerous biological agents that may be used as weapons, the Working Group on Civilian Biodefense has identified a limited number of organisms that could cause disease and deaths in sufficient numbers to cripple a city or region. Anthrax is one of the most serious of these diseases.

Telecommunications And Network Management Information Technology Essay

Telecommunications And Network Management Information Technology Essay Managing the resources like Information Technology, Telecommunications and Network Management is same as like building a home. The more work you take part and the more work you have to be finished. The people who are destroying cannot fix the works of plumbing and electrical works. So you should go for contractor to direct, watch and manage the whole project. The above condition is same for the IT Organizations. So, the Organization must have a contractor or supervisor to manage all its management functions within it. The contractors or supervisors to manage the network management functions within Organization are FCAPS and ITIL (Information Technology Management). This paper mainly explains about the frameworks or models FCAPS and ITIL, their Life cycles and also their reliable services and also explained briefly about the TMN Model. The Fault, Configuration, Accounting, Performance and Security managements are commonly known as FCAPS. FCAPS is a model but not a product and it is developed by the International Telecommunications Union (ITU) and FCAPS is migrating its managements from reactive state to proactive state. And also explains detailed description about Information Technology Infrastructure Library (ITIL) and their reliable services. ITIL provided services for the IT organisations to meet their business requirement needs and goals and it has set of best practices for managing IT Service Management. IT plays very important role in the organizations business processes. ITIL put the organisations business process goals in a place and providing measurement process for those goals. However there are lot of confusions in the IT Organizations about these frameworks (FCAPS and ITIL). Some of the professional think that they are alternate approaches to reach the same goal. But some other professionals think that they are mutually exclusive. There are lot more confusions and comparisons about these frameworks. But now many of the IT Organizations are adopting ITIL because of greater flexibilities of their services. Keywords: FCAPS, ITIL, ITIL Services and Information Technology Service Management (ITSM), TMN, ITU. Introduction: The network management is used to maintain the large number of networks, and those are often in the areas such as telecommunications and computers. The network management is mainly executes the functions such as security, deployment, monitoring, controlling, allocating, coordination and planning. Why Network Management Models? The network management is very complicate to implement. So, in order to work the total network management perfectly we are breaking down network functions into the smaller chunks. By implementing these smaller chunks we can get the total management of the networks. For implementing all the network management functions we are using the network models. Those are TMN (Telecommunications Management Network) FCAPS (Fault, Configuration, Accounting, Performance, Security Management) ITIL (Information Technology Infrastructure Library) All these models mainly involved in the business management in IT (Information Technology) organization and providing reliable or robust information infrastructure services to it is a main criteria of the network models. Many multinational companies considering these network models in top 10 position but they are not giving top position. But the interesting thing is that some of the companies are not giving priority for these network Models for their business management. So, by this effect the companies are providing their services to customers below 20% and also the delivered products also not working more than 3 years. So the companies need to follow the Network Models for providing robust and reliable services to the clients and employees. FCAPS Model is running efficiently with TMN layer but more is needed from this or extra version of this model. And below explained more details about the network models. TMN (Telecommunications Management Network) Model: TMN is Telecommunication Management Network. The standard model was first developed by ITU-T (International Telecommunication Union- Telecommunications) in the year of 1993 and was updated in the year 1996. ITU-T recommended this model as a framework where service providers provide their services to deliver to the networks. It has provided layered architecture for different levels of abstraction. The layered architecture as below BML-Business Management Layer SML-Service Management Layer NML-Network Management Layer EML-Element Management Layer The above layered architecture is the TMN logical layered architecture. By using this layered model architecture we can understand clearly how the IT Services depend on the network layers for their business needs and for better performance. FCAPS (Fault, Configuration, Accounting, Performance, Security) Model: FCAPS was developed by the ITU-T in addition to the TMN layered architecture in the year of 1997. FCAPS is a model but not a product. The ITU-T initially developed this model for assisting how to manage telecommunication networks. It was also an ISO (International Organization for Standardization) model for the network management. The FCAPS framework is also called as Open System Interconnect (OSI) Network Management Model for network management implementations. This works based on TMN Layer and performs their functionality at each and every stage of TMN architecture layer. FCAPS Management: The Standard Model FCAPS management depends on OSI (Open System Interconnect). The OSI specifies five key areas which are under the FCAPS model. Those are Fault Management, Configuration Management, Accounting Management, Performance Management, and Security Management. F-Fault Management C- Configuration Management A- Accounting Management P- Performance Management S- Security Management Fault Management (F): In this functional area it is used as analysis of alarms and faults in the network. The network has ability to identify and isolate problems and providing information to appropriate person whom to deal with the problems. In this the network is always in a running status and the downtime is minimized. The Fault management is the well known area of the network management. More Functionalities of Fault Management are: Fault detection, clear correction, fault correction, network recovery, fault isolation, alarm handling, alarm filtering, alarm generation, diagnostic test, error logging, error handling and error statistics. EX: CiscoWorks LMS (LAN Management Solution) Device Fault Manager (DFM). CiscoWorks LMS (LAN Management Solution) Device Centre for troubleshooting. Configuration Management (C): In the configuration management functional area the network is controlled and monitored and maintaining the status of the networks. Installing new components against the old components and maintained carefully by managing, recording and performing. In this area the main operations are routing tables, Service set identifier assignment, IP addressing scheme and maintain the information on the devices. One of the most important things a network manager can maintain a good network health by managing the device configurations. More functionalities of Configuration Management are: Resource initialization, network provisioning, auto discovery, backup and restore, resource shut down, change management, pre-provisioning, inventory management, copy configuration, remote configuration, job initiation and automated software distribution. EX: CiscoWorks LMS (LAN Management Solution) Resource Manager Essential (RME). LMS Campus Manager. LMS Cisco View. Accounting Management (A): The accounting management level is also called as allocation level. In this the network manager gathers the user usage statistics and allocation of costs associated with the bills per time and providing services by the devices. One more privilege of accounting management is that allows actions of users and better use of available resources. More functionalities of accounting management are: supporting for different modes of accounting, audits, set quotes for usage, tracking the service, cost of the service, accounting limit, combine cost for more devices, fraud reporting. EX: Cisco Access Control Server (ACS) combined with LMS (LAN Management Solution) and NCM (Network Configuration Management). Performance Management (P): The performance of the networks depends upon the quality of networks and system statistics (Configurations). For better performance, the network collects the data, maintaining the proper utilization of data, free from errors, maintaining the response time when the data is tracked and finally availability of data. Performance management is as simple as monitoring CPU and also as complex as end to end application monitoring. More functionalities of Performance Management are: consistent performance level, performance data generation, and problem reporting, performance data collection, and static collection, performance data analysis, capacity planning and examining historical logs. EX: CiscoWorks LMS (LAN Management Solution) Internet Performance Monitor (IPM). LMS: Device Fault Manager (DFM). Security Management (S): The Security Management functional area defines the process and procedures for network security by protecting the network from hackers and unauthorised users. We should have to hide the information to the unknown users possibly. The network administrator can control individual user what he can do and what he cannot do with the system. More functionalities of Security Management are: resource access, data privacy, access logs, enable NE functions, user access rights checking, security alarm for event reporting, takes care of security, security audit trail log and security related information distribution. EX: Cisco Access Control Server (ACS). LMS depends on the Secure Sockets Layer (SSL), Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) and other security Audits. Where does FCAPS fit? All the managements under the FCAPS are applicable to manage the applications. But managing the application is not same that managing a network. The applications have a set of problems that are affected by the network. EX: VoIP Management using FCAPS FCAPS model is applicable for the life cycle of VoIP / IPT (Voice over Internet Protocol / information Protocol Telephony). But dont think this model is only applicable for the VoIP. VoIP is a application but not a network. This is also applicable in four stages of IT project life cycle. Those are planning, designing, deployment and in operational. FCAPS on other IT Services: For all key factors of FCAPS framework has provided extended functionalities. The extended functionalities of FCAPS also called as ITEF (Information Technology Extended Framework). The functionalities provided in the FCAPS are developed independent of operating system and any application type. Those functionalities can work in any operating system, any applications types and support for different types of IT services. The extended functionalities for FCAPS on IT services are like a tree view structure so the consumer easily navigate to detailed level if he needed. The structure of FCAPS functionalities are given below. The extended functionalities provided by the FCAPS are used in different types of organizations particularly for the IT Services. The IT service document mainly describes the category of coverage and individual services described in the IT management. EX: Change Management in Configuration Management: The change management is the extended functionality under the configuration management. It is for the authorizing, recording, monitoring and reporting all the services to the Open System environment. The primary responsibilities provided in the change management system are Auditable mechanism for handling all changes within the integrated management system. Review process for all authorising changes. Process for all changes tested and validated. Creating a mechanism for review change for not authorised from the change management process. ITSM (Information Technology Service Model): The IT Service Model is providing very important roles for the ITEF (Information Technology Extended Framework). The main structure of IT Service Model as below Fault Management | Backup Recovery | Disaster Recovery | User data restoration | Policy Chargeback Service Levels | Procedures Escalation Service Request This ITSM (Information Technology Service Model) can be implemented in all the platforms to create the Service Level descriptions and to create SLAs (Service Level Agreements) between the IT resource provider organizations and the end-user consumer organizations. The below example explains the sample Service Level Description of IT Service user data backup can be used as a guideline and should be modified and compatible to local data centre policies and conventions. Service Name: User data backup Schedule of the Service: Maintenance Window Task. Service Levels: Mission Critical Level: The user data will be stored in the central management backup system where data will be stored in daily based services. So, we can get the data backup from the central management system. They will be charge you for getting the user data to back. Charge for backup data in Mission Critical level The cost will be 1000$ + 8$ per 100 GB capacity of data per one month. Business Critical Level: In the business critical level the user data will be stored in to the central management backup system on weekly basis and daily incremental services. The cost will be quite less when compared to the mission critical level. Charge for backup data in Business critical level The cost will be 500Â £ + 60$ per 100GB capacity of data per a one month. Business Support Level: In the business support level the user data will be store in to the local attached file system on weekly basis and daily incremental basis. The cost will be very low compared to the mission critical and business critical levels. Charge for backup data in Business Support level The cost will be 200$ + 40$ per 100GB capacity of data per a one month. Applying ITIL (Information Technology Infrastructure Library): While FCAPS is a great model to defining and understanding of the Network Management objectives, and another framework come in for giving best services for network management with the alignment of current IT organization structure and expands to the FCAPS framework Model. That is ITIL (Information Technology Infrastructure Library). The Central Computer and Telecommunications Agency (CCTA) from United Kingdom created the ITIL in the year of 1978 to grown up the Information Technology to meet the business needs and goals. This is developed by the experienced and talented people in the UK and by the practitioners in worldwide. The IBM Company is using the ITIL libraries for the best practices and then the official versions of the ITIL beginning to release. The latest version is ITIL v3 which was released in the year of 2007. This ITIL is customizable framework for giving quality services and avoiding some faults in the current Information Technology. The ITIL can be used for better IT Service independent of type and size of the organization, multinational or Region Company, centralised or decentralised IT provision, an IT company with only one employee. The ITIL (IT Infrastructure Library) has seven steps to implement. Those are Service Support, Service Delivery, and Planning to implement Service Management, Information and Communication Technology Infrastructure Management, Application Management, Security Management and the business prospective. The main component of ITSM (Information Technology Service Management) is divided into following different sections. Those are ITIL Service Delivery ITIL Service Support ITIL Security Management ITIL Information Communications Technology (ICT) Infrastructure Management ITIL Application Management ITIL Software Asset Management The Business Prospective. ITIL Service Delivery: The Service Delivery is the key factor in providing the services over the network and should be able to deliver consistently. And it is also used for managing the IT Services and involvement of number of IT Service management practices agreed between the service provider and the customer. Service Delivery has 5 disciplines. Those are Service Level Management Capacity Management Continuity Management Availability Management IT Financial Management The Service Level Management is mainly concentrates on the monitoring and identification of IT services provided in the SLAs (Service Level Agreements). It is also used to provide arrangements with the external service suppliers and the internal service providers in the form of an OLAs (Operational Level Agreements). Responsibility of Service Level Management is to take care of agreed IT services to supply to the appropriate persons or organizations within the time management. The Capacity Management is defending the cost effective and the best IT services by helping the organizations in order to match their business needs. The activities of Capacity Management are Workload Management, Capacity Planning, Resource Management, Performance Management, Modelling, Demand Managements and Application Size. The Continuity Management is supports the proactive measurement of IT Service. It easily identifies the error before get to process so that makes the IT Service can in continuous way. The Responsibility of Continuity Management is performing the risk management to identify threats, assets for each IT Service and also able to give options of the recovering the IT Service. The Availability Management is targets the industries or organizations should check out the availability of IT Services with low cost to run the organization in a perfect way. The activity of the Availability Management is mainly concentrates on reliability, Serviceability, Resilience, Security and maintainability of the IT Services. The Finance Management is ensuring that the infrastructure of the IT Organization is cost effective. We used to calculating the cost of the IT services often so that we can estimate the cost of the IT services in the organization. We can recover the costs by providing the customer services to the customers. ITIL Service Support: ITIL Service Support is the most typical Network Operation Centre (NOC) in all organizations. This is mainly concentrates on applications those are required by the end users. The operations are troubleshooting, supporting new applications over the network and help desk. The best practice of those Service Delivery disciplines that is used to enable the IT services to work effectively. ITIL Service Support has 6 disciplines. Those are Configuration Management Incident Management Problem Management Change Management Service / Help Desk Release Management. In the above disciplines the Problem Management identifying the applications which have some faults and giving troubleshooting speciality of those applications to run perfectly and also solves performance problems in the environment. To solve the problems in the network environment by troubleshooting you will be having good understanding of networks and their configurations are required. We can get those configurations by using another discipline using configuration management for this we have to refer configuration management database. The change management is involves with the both problem management and configuration management. If the management has made problems with the infrastructure so definitely there will be changes with the configuration then some problem raised with the configuration. The service will be help full in implementing other factors like PC to client PC installations and implementation and designing of networks and some other duties. The total 11 ITIL disciplines are used for reducing the costs, to work operations effectively, and for better alignment of IT and business needs and goals. ITIL Security Management: The most important key role for the network management is the security. The external hackers or threats access data through firewalls and based on access permissions. We can gain the security by using proper configuration of network rights and permissions to the users that make the unauthorised users cannot access the data from end users. ITIL Infrastructure Management: The Infrastructure Management is concentrates on installations and configurations of network designs in the organizations. Generally in the big organizations the designing and troubleshooting of networks are treated as separate entity than the installation equipment. So that is the reason for IT organizations required accurate configurations. ITIL Application Management: The application management is mainly concentrated on whether the application is able to configure and design to implement in the organization environment or not. Some applications are giving late signals and not providing some other links in it. So this maintains the proper application providing suitable services delivered to the end users. ITIL Software Asset Management: The ITIL Software Asset Management is essential for every organization. This is mainly deals with the installation steps for software, their license periods and also giving some partial configuration of that particular software. It gives so much information before going to install software and also providing in how many instances a software can install in a drive. This is essential for a big or small organization to run IT operations. So, this is very important for the network management. In the version ITIL v2 only two developed modules of Service support for IT Services and Service Delivery of IT Services are included. But in the next and the latest version ITIL v3 has included lot of modules which will help to increase the efficiency of IT Services and their business needs. Even though it has included lot of services to increase the IT standards to the top level but some disadvantages are there to decrease the services. Comparisons of FCAPS and ITIL frameworks: If we understand both FCPAS and ITIL frameworks that are overlapped with some concepts while addressing. In both the frameworks, they have completed their stages which are not associated with the specific instance. Initially the FCAPS model is mainly concentrates on the different types of management levels with the help of TMN layered network model. But another important framework ITIL is mainly concentrates on the IT Organization to run efficiently with the help of their suitable services. There are lot of advantages and inconsiderable disadvantages in both of the frameworks. Still the professionals have confusion about what to start? And which framework is suitable for their organization? Now International Organizations are adopting the ITIL frameworks within the organization for great success of their services and much more savings of money while operating it. Why ITIL and Why not FCAPS: Initially all the international organizations using the FCAPS model and later on it was dominated and get down by the latest model that is ITIL. Now every Organization looking to implement the new things within the money management, and they have observed that ITIL is the better option to reduce their expenses when compared to FCAPS model. So, this is one of the key successes of ITIL. One more factor supports the ITIL, ITIL is used to manage and organize different IT deportments of problems at a time with one comprehensive volume. Where as in FCAPS we have consider the deportment separately and recovered from the problems. Another factor that let down the FCAPS service is that in the traditional environment of FCAPS model is a wired network with clear description of hierarchical architecture with deterministic behaviour of end points. Unlike WLANs (Wireless Local Area Networks), there are some factors effecting the wired network environment. But on the other side wireless networks which rules the world and many factors effect on it. By using wireless based networks they can change dynamically IP (Internet Protocol) address, location and status of their connectivity. But the dynamic nature of Clients connectivity is not a fault there is no client specific management in the FCAPS. FCAPS is a useful tool and this can be used in the traditional environment but cannot be used in the wireless related networks. Another beef of FCAPS that will tells you if there is a problem raised in the services of network management but it wont tell the address of the problem, how to repair it and how to resolve complex situation at the same time. ITIL has gained the tremendous success when it was executed in different organisations under different circumstances in different parts of the world. Even though ITIL has lot of advantages for IT Management but there are some inconsiderable disadvantages that are raised by the IT professionals. ITIL is comprehensive to implement the IT Management. The publications of ITIL are also saying that it is not holistic to implement IT. Another disadvantage raised by the IT Professionals that is even though ITIL is mostly accepted by the IT Managers for business needs this led to skip some of the pragmatic solutions for their business needs and this is unacceptable. The FCAPS model can handle fault and configuration management perfectly but the organizations depend on other tools to implement security related issues. The ITIL deals total managements including security clearly. Conclusion: NMRU is Network Management R Us is prestigious company in the UK. All Network Management companies must follow the network management models like TMN, FCAPS and ITIL for better performance, security, identifying and solving future network problems. The company currently NMRU using the FCAPS model and this model usually layered with TMN. There are new features arrived in the UK Public Sector and now wanted to migrate to the Information Technology Infrastructure Library (ITIL).